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Theoretical Maximal Algal Oil Production

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Highlights

References Used

Background

  • Range of algal oil production has included estimates that are above the theoretical maximum reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • (Apr 2008) CNN reports 100,000 gallons oil per acre per year reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
      • Attributed to Glen Kertz, President and CEO of Valcent Products Inc. reference
        (Jan 29, 2009, Algae: 'The ultimate in renewable energy' - CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/04/01/algae.oil/index.html)
  • Algal oil yield is governed by two primary factors reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • Algal productivity reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
      • Species dependent reference
        (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • Lipid content as a percentage of biomass reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
      • Species dependent reference
        (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)

Calculation

Theoretical Case

  • Represents the limit of production as constrained by physical laws reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • The rate of incidence of solar irradiance must be greater than or equal the rate of stored chemical energy reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
Conditions
  • Full-spectrum solar energy reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Algae grown on the equator where solar energy is at the maximum reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • Skies are perfectly clear reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
  • Photosynthetic portion of the spectrum reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Photosynthetically active radiation, PAR, represents wavelengths of solar energy that can be used for photosynthesis reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
      • Wavelengths ranging from 400-700 nm reference
        (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Value for %PAR calculated to be 45.8% reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Photon energy reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Calculated from PAR to be 225.3 kJ per mole reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Systems using artificial light or heterotrophic conditions are not considered reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
Assumptions
  • Sunlight reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • 73.3% inherent photosynthetic loss factored into estimation reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
  • Photon transmission efficiency reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Assumes no loss in photon flux due to the geometry of the growth system reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Photon utilization efficiency reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Assumes 100% utilization of incident photons reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Photosynthesis is at maximal efficiency reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • Quantum requirement and carbohydrate energy content represent conversion of light energy to chemical energy reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
      • Quantum requirement is number of photons required to convert one mole of CO2 to one mole of carbohydrate and is estimated to be 8 reference
        (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Carbohydrate energy content estimated to be 482.5 kJ per mol reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Biomass accumulation efficiency reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Considered to be 100% or perfect efficiency of biomass accumulation reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
      • Implies that the cell does not use any of its captured energy to maintain itself or synthesize complex molecules reference
        (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Usable oil content of algae is assumed to be 50% reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • 2008 Algae Biomass Summit report assumed oil content of algae to be 70% reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
  • Oil density reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • For calculating volume of oil produced, density of algal oil assumed to be similar to that of soybean oil at 918 kg per cubic meter reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)

Practical Case

  • Represents production that is possible with optimized system reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
Conditions
  • Site specific solar data used from Phoenix, Arizona; Honolulu, Hawaii; Denver, Colorado; Tel Aviv, Israel; Malaga, Spain; and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • Phoenix has the highest total annual solar irradiance, Kuala Lumpur has the lowest reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Photosynthetic portion of the spectrum reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Photosynthetically active radiation, PAR, represents wavelengths of solar energy that can be used for photosynthesis reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
      • Wavelengths ranging from 400-700 nm reference
        (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Value for %PAR calculated to be 45.8% reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Photon energy reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Calculated from PAR to be 225.3 kJ per mole reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
Assumptions
  • Sunlight reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
  • Photon utilization efficiency reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Assumes 50% utilization of incident photons reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Photosynthesis is at maximal efficiency reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • Quantum requirement and carbohydrate energy content represent conversion of light energy to chemical energy reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
      • Quantum requirement is number of photons required to convert one mole of CO2 to one mole of carbohydrate and is estimated to be 8 reference
        (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Carbohydrate energy content estimated to be 482.5 kJ per mol reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Biomass accumulation efficiency reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Considered to be 60% efficient reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
      • 40% of energy for cellular energy requirements reference
        (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
  • Oil content of algae assumed to be 50% reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)(Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
  • Oil density reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • For calculating volume of oil produced, density of algal oil assumed to be similar to that of soybean oil at 918 kg per cubic meter reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)

Oil Yield

Theoretical Maximum

  • Oil yield of 38,000 gallons per acre per year reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • 2008 Algae Biomass Summit report calculated yield of 53,000 gallons oil per acre per year reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://algalbiomass.org/list/documents/S6-KristinaWeyer-SolixBiofuels.pdf)
      • Assumed oil content of algae to be 70% reference
        (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)

Practical Case

  • Ranges from 4,900-6,500 gallons per acre per year reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)(Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia at 3 degrees North latitude, 4,900 gallons per acre per year reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Denver, Colorado at 40 degrees North latitude, 5,300 gallons per acre per year reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Malaga, Spain at 37 degrees North latitude, 5,600 gallons per acre per year reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Tel Aviv, Israel at 32 degrees North latitude, 5,900 gallons per acre per year reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Honolulu, Hawaii at 21 degrees North latitude, 6,300 gallons per acre per year reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Phoenix, Arizona at 33 degrees North latitude, 6,500 gallons per acre per year reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)

Other Estimates

  • (2010) In publication, "An Economic and Technical Evaluation of Microalgal Biofuels," scientists calculate that 22 MJ m-2 d-1 solar radiation supports practical yield maxima of approximately 60 - 100 kl oil ha-1 y-1, or about 6,600 - 10,800 gal ac-1 y-1 reference
    (Feb 12, 2010, Access : An economic and technical evaluation of microalgal biofuels : Nature Biotechnology, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/full/nbt0210-126.html)(Feb 15, 2010, An Economic and Technical Evaluation of Microalgal Biofuels, Supplementary Material, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/extref/nbt0210-126-S1.pdf)
    • Level of solar radiation supports an absolute theoretical ceiling of about 94 - 155 kl oil ha-1 y-1 reference
      (Feb 12, 2010, Access : An economic and technical evaluation of microalgal biofuels : Nature Biotechnology, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/full/nbt0210-126.html)
    • Calculations assume a maximum photosynthetic conversion efficiency of 10% reference
      (Feb 12, 2010, Access : An economic and technical evaluation of microalgal biofuels : Nature Biotechnology, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/full/nbt0210-126.html)
      • Authors believe that a consensus appears to support a maximal solar-to-biomass energy conversion efficiency of 8-10% in practical terms reference
        (Feb 12, 2010, suppinfo/nbt0210-126_S1.html, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/suppinfo/nbt0210-126_S1.html)
    • Calculation assumes an algal oil content of 25%-50% reference
      (Feb 12, 2010, suppinfo/nbt0210-126_S1.html, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/suppinfo/nbt0210-126_S1.html)
    • 22 MJ m-2 d-1 solar radiation represents a conservative level for northern Australian conditions and an average illumination rate for the sunniest areas in the US reference
      (Feb 12, 2010, suppinfo/nbt0210-126_S1.html, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/suppinfo/nbt0210-126_S1.html)
    • Collaborating scientists are from the University of Queensland, the University of Bielefeld, the University of Karlsruhe, and Murdoch University reference
      (Feb 12, 2010, Access : An economic and technical evaluation of microalgal biofuels : Nature Biotechnology, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/full/nbt0210-126.html)(Feb 15, 2010, An Economic and Technical Evaluation of Microalgal Biofuels, Supplementary Material, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/extref/nbt0210-126-S1.pdf)
    • Corresponding author on the study is Ben Hankamer from University of Queensland reference
      (Feb 12, 2010, Access : An economic and technical evaluation of microalgal biofuels : Nature Biotechnology, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/full/nbt0210-126.html)(Feb 15, 2010, An Economic and Technical Evaluation of Microalgal Biofuels, Supplementary Material, http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v28/n2/extref/nbt0210-126-S1.pdf)
  • (2008) John Benemann calculates maximal production at about 2,000 gallons per acre per year reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)
    • May increase 2- to 3-fold with improved algae reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Green Car Congress: Early Stage Algae Biofuel Company Closes $10.5M Funding Round; Additional $5M for Pilot Plant, http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/11/early-stage-alg.html)

Varying Parameters

  • Changes in latitude cause algal oil yield to change reference
    (Jan 28, 2009, Low Cost Photobioreactors for Algal Biofuel Production & Carbon Capture Sep 18, 2008, http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/08/H2/pdfs/Solix%20Carbon%20Recycling,%209-18-08.pdf)
    • Theoretical maximum yield varies from about 30,000 to about 17,000 gallons oil per acre per year when the latitude varies from 0 degrees to 60 degrees respectively reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Low Cost Photobioreactors for Algal Biofuel Production & Carbon Capture Sep 18, 2008, http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/08/H2/pdfs/Solix%20Carbon%20Recycling,%209-18-08.pdf)
    • Practical maximum yield varies from about 6,000 to about 3,000 gallons oil per acre per year when the latitude varies from 0 degrees to 60 degrees respectively reference
      (Jan 28, 2009, Low Cost Photobioreactors for Algal Biofuel Production & Carbon Capture Sep 18, 2008, http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/08/H2/pdfs/Solix%20Carbon%20Recycling,%209-18-08.pdf)
  • Climate and atmospheric conditions strongly influence solar irradiance reference
    (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)
    • Phoenix, Arizona at 33 degrees North latitude has higher solar irradiance and higher predicted oil productivity than Kuala Lumpur at 3 degrees North latitude reference
      (Jul 06, 2009, Theoretical Maximum Algal Oil Production, http://www.solixbiofuels.com/sites/default/files/pdf/TheoreticalMaximum_FINAL_6-11-09.pdf)

References [hide]

Reference Not Available
 
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